Hydrocarbons as a source of urban groundwater pollution and management options: comparison between the United Kingdom and Nigeria

Abstract

This study reviewed and compared the levels of groundwater pollution between a developing and developed country, using Nigeria and the United Kingdom as a case study. Groundwater is the major source of freshwater, but it remains highly susceptible to pollutants. The aim was to identify the primary sources of hydrocarbon pollution, and to compare the management and remediation strategies adopted by the two countries. The data sources were obtained from published peer-reviewed articles from 2011 to 2025. Quantitative data were standardised in milligrams per litre (mg/l) and analysed descriptively to compare Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) concentrations against World Health Organisation (WHO) and Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) standards. Qualitative data were examined thematically to evaluate institutional and technological responses. This research revealed that Nigerian groundwater is severely contaminated, with a range of data exceeding WHO standards and the health risk assessment values obtained revealed significant health risks. However, in the UK, the groundwater is generally within the permissible limits. This is a result of the strict implementation of the Water Framework Directive, proactive remediation, and sustained monitoring. This research reveals results that demonstrate that persistent hydrocarbon contamination in Nigeria is attributable to weak governance.